Objectives: The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Empowering Community Pharmacists program on pharmacists' knowledge, perceived barriers, attitudes, confidence, and intentions regarding naloxone services implementation, as well as change in number of naloxone prescriptions dispensed. Methods: A 3-month pragmatic randomized controlled trial was conducted in 2018-2019. Alabama community pharmacists were recruited by email, phone, fax, and mailed postcards and randomized to intervention (monthly resources/reminders + educational webinar) or control (monthly resources/reminders + delayed educational webinar). Outcome measures were assessed via online surveys at baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3-months post-intervention (T3), including: naloxone knowledge (percent correct); perceived barriers, attitudes, and confidence regarding naloxone services implementation (7-point Likert-type scale, 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree); and number of naloxone prescriptions dispensed. Mean differences between control and intervention groups from T1-T3 were assessed using two-way mixed ANOVA and adjusted analyses were conducted using generalized estimating equations (GEE) with negative binomial distribution (alpha=0.05).
Study Type
INTERVENTIONAL
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Purpose
HEALTH_SERVICES_RESEARCH
Masking
NONE
Enrollment
55
At month 1 of the study period, the educational webinar was presented by expert speakers and consisted of 3 modules: 1) naloxone basics; 2) naloxone service implementation strategies; and 3) naloxone recommendation communication strategies. Participants were mailed naloxone nasal spray and auto-injector training devices prior to attending the online webinar so that they could follow along during demonstrations.
After completing the baseline survey, both control and intervention groups were provided with a basic publicly available flyer about naloxone dosage forms in order to ensure all participants could provide adequate patient care.
Reminders consisted of monthly emails from investigators for the purpose of retaining study engagement.
Auburn University Harrison School of Pharmacy
Auburn, Alabama, United States
Change in naloxone knowledge from baseline to immediately post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention
Knowledge about naloxone was measured via online survey. Knowledge was measured as percent correct on a 7-item index adapted from Williams' (2013) Opioid Overdose Knowledge Scale (OOKS).
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
Change in perceived barriers from baseline to immediately post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention
Perceived barriers to adoption/implementation of pharmacy-based naloxone services was measured via online survey. Barriers (20-items) were measured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) and informed by Nielsen et al (2016) and Williams' (2013) Opioid Overdose Attitude Scale (OOAS).
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
Change in attitudes from baseline to immediately post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention
Attitudes regarding pharmacy-based naloxone services was measured via online survey. Attitudes (15-items) were measured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) and informed by Nielsen et al (2016) and Williams' (2013) Opioid Overdose Attitude Scale (OOAS).
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
Change in confidence from baseline to immediately post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention
Confidence in performing naloxone dispensing behaviors was measured via online survey. Confidence (10-items) was measured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) and informed by Nielsen et al (2016) and Williams' (2013) Opioid Overdose Attitude Scale (OOAS).
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
Change in intention from baseline to immediately post-intervention and 3 months post-intervention
Intention to dispense naloxone or perform naloxone services in the next three months was measured via online survey. The 5-item intention construct was measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree and informed by an existing intention measure by Urmie et al (2007).
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1), immediately post-intervention (T2), and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
Change in number of naloxone prescriptions dispensed from baseline to 3 months post-intervention
The number of naloxone prescriptions dispensed over 3 months before and after the intervention was assessed via self-report at T1 and T3. Participants utilized national drug codes (NDCs) within their pharmacy dispensing software to identify naloxone dispensing information.
Time frame: 3 months: baseline (T1) and 3 months post-intervention (T3)
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