Point-of-Care Testing in Outpatient Diabetes Care

Inclusion Criteria: -Adults aged 18 to 80 receiving treatment and follow-up for diabetes at outpatient clinics of Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan. Exclusion Criteria: 1. Past medical history of hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinopathies (sickle cell anemia HbS, fetal hemoglobin HbF), iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia, pernicious anemia, recent blood transfusions, acute bleeding requiring erythropoiesis-stimulating agents. 2. Chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, hyperbilirubinemia, asplenia (splenomegaly, splenectomy). 3. Hypertriglyceridemia (over 500 mg/dl), or alcoholism. 4. Thyroid dysfunction, active malignant tumors under treatment, HIV infection. 5. Long-term use (over three months) of steroids or cyclosporine. 6. Severe proteinuria (e.g., nephrotic syndrome), or a baseline eGFR \<60 ml/min/1.73 m².