Resistance Exercise Training on Vascular and Physical Function in Postmenopausal Women

Hand grip strength- muscle strength

Participants were instructed to stand with their feet shoulder-width apart, with elbows fully extended and slightly abducted at approximately 45 degrees. They were asked to apply maximum grip strength and hold for 3 to 4 seconds. Each hand was tested three times, with a 10- to 15-second rest between trials. Both hands were tested, and the highest value from each hand was recorded for analysis.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

Five-repetition maximum test (5RM)

In this study, exercise intensity was estimated using the five-repetition maximum (5RM) test to predict the one-repetition maximum (1RM). Given that the target population consisted of middle-aged and older postmenopausal women, the 5RM test was selected to reduce the risk of injury and enhance participant motivation. The predicted 1RM was calculated using the formula proposed by LeSuer et al.: 1RM = body weight × (1 + 0.0333 × number of repetitions)

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

Body Composition

Skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) of the limbs was assessed using multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (MF-BIA; InBody 270, Tokyo, Japan). During the test, participants stood barefoot on the marked footplate positions with their arms relaxed and slightly abducted, placing their thumbs on the designated sensors. Each measurement lasted approximately 10 to 15 seconds while maintaining a standing posture.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

Perceived Exertion

This study utilized the Chinese version of the Modified Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale to assess participants' subjective perception of effort. The scale ranges from 0 to 10, where a score of 0 indicates no exertion at all.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) - Taiwan Physical Activity Questionnaire (Short Form)

The IPAQ is a self-reported instrument assesses the time spent in the past 7 days on activities including work, housework, gardening/balcony work, commuting, leisure, and exercise. Total time spent per week is multiplied by the metabolic equivalent (MET) and summed to present the total MET-minutes per week. Physical activity intensity is classified into walking (3.3 METs), moderate (4.0 METs), and vigorous (8.0 METs).

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB)

This assessment consisted of three components to evaluate lower extremity function. First, the standing balance test required participants to maintain balance in three stances-feet together, semi-tandem, and full tandem-for up to 10 seconds each. Second, the gait speed test measured the time it took participants to walk 4 meters at their usual pace, reflecting their walking speed. Third, the chair stand test assessed lower limb muscle strength by recording the time needed to complete five consecutive sit-to-stand movements with arms crossed over the chest. These tests collectively provided an objective measure of physical performance.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

3-Meter Walk Test

This test is used to assess lower limb strength, balance, gait, and functional mobility in older adults. At the start of the test, the participant sits on a chair with a backrest, placing both hands on their thighs. Upon instruction, the participant stands up, walks to a marker placed 3 meters away, turns around the marker, walks back, and sits down again. The test is performed at the fastest safe speed.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks

30-Second Chair Stand Test:

While seated on a chair of standard height with feet flat on the floor, participants are instructed to cross their arms over their chest. Upon the start of the test, they repeatedly stand up and sit down as many times as possible within 30 seconds. The total number of completed repetitions is recorded.

Time frame: Change from baseline at 12 weeks