A Cross-sectional Study on the Association of Peptidoglycan Fragments Derived From Gut Microbiota With Alcohol Liver Disease

Inclusion Criteria: (1) patients diagnosed with liver cirrhosis based on clinical-pathologic features including liver history and endoscopic or radiologic findings (the presence of clinical cirrhosis was adjudicated in a blinded fashion by two separate hepatology experts; to be included, both experts were required to agree on the presence of clinical cirrhosis) and (2) all patients with chronic liver disease were required to have evidence of clinical liver disease for at least 6 months and were required to have an identifiable etiology of liver disease, including alcohol-related liver diseases (based on a history of alcohol use disorder or a past history of alcohol consumption of greater than 2 ounces of ethanol per day for men or 1 ounce of ethanol per day for women (for greater than 10 years) with no other cause of liver disease identified), NAFLDs, viral hepatitis B or C (detected by HCV RNA or HBV DNA measurement) or autoimmune liver disease (based on international autoimmune scoring criteria). Exclusion Criteria: (1) individuals treated with antibiotics, probiotics or proton pump inhibitors within 1 month before sample collection; (2) any participant undergoing a gastrointestinal surgical procedure or colonoscopy within 6 months before sample collection; (3) any individual with uncontrolled infection; and (4) individuals with uncontrolled systolic blood pressure.