Bread remains one of the most widely consumed staple foods worldwide, with wheat flour serving as its traditional foundation. However, the widespread dependence on refined wheat-based bread has paralleled the rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), partly owing to its high glycaemic index (GI), which results in rapid increases in blood glucose levels. Enhancing the nutritional quality of bread, therefore, represents an important target for dietary intervention. Developing alternative flour blends for bread production presents a potential strategy for improving glycaemic control and supporting glucose homeostasis. Accordingly, this clinical trial aims to determine whether the partial replacement of wheat flour with legume flours, including chickpea, pea, and lentil, in Arabic bread formulations can lower glycaemic responses compared with traditional Arabic wheat bread.
This study will be a crossover trial. Participants living with overweight and obesity will be recruited and fully informed about the study before giving informed consent. Eligible participants will attend the University of Nottingham on 4 separate visits following an overnight fast of at least 10 hours. On each visit, participants will consume one of three Arabic bread formulations or a control, with a one-week washout between visits. Each bread sample will provide an equivalent of 50 g of available carbohydrate: 1. Control bread (100% wheat flour) 2. Arabic bread containing 30% chickpea flour, with 70% wheat flour (primary comparison with control) 3. Arabic bread containing 30% pea flour, with 70% wheat flour(optional secondary comparison with control) 4. Arabic bread containing 30% lentil flour, with 70% wheat flour (optional secondary comparison with control) The primary focus of this study is the comparison between the control bread and the chickpea-enriched bread, as chickpea flour represents the main intervention. The pea-enriched bread and lentil-enriched variants are included as optional secondary comparisons to provide additional insights into the broader effect of legume flour substitution on glycaemic response. Study Visits: The procedures for each visit are summarised below: 1. Pre-visit fast: Participants will fast for at least 10 hours before each visit. 2. Blood glucose sampling: Capillary blood glucose will be measured via finger prick at baseline and at regular intervals over 120 minutes following consumption (0, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min) of the bread sample to assess the postprandial glycaemic response. 3. Appetite assessment: Participants will complete visual analogue scale questionnaires at baseline and at set intervals throughout each visit to assess subjective appetite responses. 4. Sensory evaluation: Participants will be asked to rate the sensory acceptability of each bread sample using a 9-point hedonic scale immediately after consumption. 5. Dietary intake: Participants will complete 24-hour food diaries in each visit. Gastrointestinal symptoms will also be monitored via a brief self-reported questionnaire at baseline and post-consumption.
Study Type
INTERVENTIONAL
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
SINGLE
Enrollment
14
Arabic bread prepared with 100% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g of available carbohydrate.
Arabic bread prepared with 30% chickpea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (This is the primary experimental comparison)
Arabic bread prepared with 30% pea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison)
Arabic bread prepared with 30% lentil flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison)
School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, United Kingdom
Nottingham, United Kingdom
Postprandial Blood Glucose Response
Differences in the iAUC for capillary blood glucose will be compared between bread formulations.
Time frame: 120 minutes
Peak Postprandial Capillary Blood Glucose
Differences in the peak capillary blood glucose value after consuming each bread formulation.
Time frame: 120 minutes
Appetite Response
Appetite sensations (hunger, fullness, desire to eat sweet foods, desire to eat salty foods, desire to eat fatty foods, and desire to eat savoury foods) will be assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Scores range from 0 to 100 mm. Higher scores indicate greater intensity of the appetite sensation being measured (e.g., greater hunger, fullness, or desire to eat).
Time frame: 120 minutes
Sensory Acceptability
Sensory acceptability of each Arabic bread sample will be assessed using a 9-Point Hedonic Scale. Scores range from 1 to 9, with higher scores indicating greater liking and sensory acceptability across sensory attributes, including overall liking, colour, aroma, flavour, texture, chewability, roundness, and crumb characteristics.
Time frame: Immediately after consumption
24 hour food intake
Total energy intake, macronutrient intake until midnight after product consumption.
Time frame: 24 hours
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