Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the effects of TKD on anthropometric and physical function parameters in older women with abdominal obesity, compared with conventional exercise interventions such as MCT, and WE. We hypothesized that TKD would produce greater improvements in abdominal fat and physical function than MCT and WE in older women with abdominal obesity.
This study was designed as a randomized, repeated-measures, double-blind controlled trial with a quantitative approach and three parallel intervention arms: taekwondo training (TKD), multicomponent training (MCT), and walking exercise (WE). The intervention period lasted 16 weeks, comprising 48 sessions delivered three times per week on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, with each session lasting 60 min. The outcomes assessed included anthropometric indicators, such as BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-height ratio, body fat percentage, and fat-free mass, as well as physical function, maximal isometric handgrip strength, and postural balance. All evaluations were conducted in the morning, between 10:00 and 12:00, at the same facilities, including the sports center and community headquarters. Environmental conditions, such as temperature, were controlled, and the same evaluators performed the baseline and post-intervention assessments. No musculoskeletal or cardiorespiratory injuries were reported during the intervention period, and participants did not report pain either before the assessments or during the training sessions.
Study Type
INTERVENTIONAL
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Purpose
TREATMENT
Masking
DOUBLE
Enrollment
70
The TKD program consisted of non-contact exercises performed during the main section of each session. This component included 10 min of basic stances and upper-limb technical actions, such as blocks and strikes, followed by 20 min of lower-limb techniques, including movements, stances, and kicks. These exercises were performed individually and in pairs, with and without taekwondo pads and shields. In addition, specific choreographies or poomsae, including Kibom Poomsae and Il Jang, were practiced for 10 min. During the first four weeks, participants completed three sets of eight repetitions of specific upper- and lower-limb technical exercises, with 2 min of rest between sets From weeks 5 to 8, training volume increased to four sets of eight repetitions for each technical exercise, maintaining 2 min of recovery between sets.
program was organized as a 40-min circuit using elastic bands, poles, 2-kg medicine balls, and chairs. The main section included exercises aimed at improving agility, postural balance, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Strength exercises involved major lower-limb muscle groups, including the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal muscles, and gastrocnemius, as well as upper-limb and trunk-related muscles such as the biceps, triceps, deltoids, and latissimus dorsi. During the first four weeks, the training volume consisted of three sets of 10 repetitions for each strength exercise, with 2 min of rest between sets. Movement execution was controlled, with approximately 2 s for the concentric phase and 4 s for the eccentric phase. From weeks 5 to 8, the volume increased to four sets of 10 repetitions per exercise, maintaining 2 min of rest between sets. During weeks 9 to 12, four sets were maintained, while repetitions increased to 12. In the final phase, from weeks 13 to 16.
Body mass
Body mass was assessed using a digital scale (Seca 769, Germany; precision 0.1 kg), while standing height was measured with a stadiometer (Seca 220, Germany; precision 0.1 cm).
Time frame: 16 weeks
Body mass index (BMI)
was calculated as body mass in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.
Time frame: 16 weeks
Abdominal obesity
Abdominal obesity was classified according to waist circumference, using a cut-off point of ≥88 cm for women.
Time frame: 16 weeks
Senior Fitness Test battery
Lower-limb muscle strength was determined through the 30-s chair stand test, recording the total number of repetitions completed within 30 s. Upper-limb muscle strength was assessed with the arm curl test, in which participants performed as many repetitions as possible in 30 s using a 3-pound dumbbell. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using the 2-min step test, which records the number of knee raises performed to the required height, corresponding approximately to 70° of hip flexion. Lower-body flexibility was assessed with the chair sit-and-reach test and expressed in centimeters. Upper-body flexibility was evaluated using the back scratch test, also reported in centimeters. Agility and dynamic balance were assessed using the timed up-and-go test, in which participants walked around a cone placed 8 feet (2.44 m) away, with performance recorded in seconds.
Time frame: 16 weeks
Maximal Isometric Handgrip Strength
Maximal isometric handgrip strength was measured using a hydraulic hand dynamometer (Camry, model EH101, Zhongshan, China), following previously described procedures. Participants were seated with the shoulder slightly abducted, the elbow flexed, the forearm in a neutral position, and the wrist maintained in neutral alignment. The dynamometer was adjusted according to each participant's hand size to ensure a comfortable and functional grip, allowing adequate flexion of the metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints and appropriate contact between the thumb and index finger. Each participant performed three trials with each hand, separated by 120 s of rest, and the highest value obtained across the attempts was used for analysis.
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program began with a 5-min warm-up that included joint mobility and flexibility exercises. The main section consisted of walking on level ground for 35 to 50 min, with duration progressively increased by 5 min every four weeks. Each session ended with a 5-min cool-down involving static and dynamic flexibility exercises. Exercise intensity was maintained at a moderate-to-vigorous level, corresponding to 50% to 70% of HRmax, and was monitored using heart rate sensor straps (H10, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Training progression was adjusted every four weeks by increasing walking duration by 5 min and individually regulating cadence, thereby increasing the distance covered by each participant. Perceived exertion was also assessed using Borg's 10-point scale. and complemented with heart rate monitoring. Figure 2 summarizes the evaluation schedule and intervention sessions.
Time frame: 16 weeks
Postural Balance
Postural balance was assessed by measuring center-of-pressure displacement using a force platform (ArtOficio Ltd., Valparaíso, Chile), according to previously reported recommendations. Data were collected at a sampling frequency of 40 Hz. Balance was evaluated under two visual conditions: eyes open and eyes closed, with each trial lasting 30 s. Participants were instructed to stand barefoot in a bipedal position, with their feet approximately shoulder-width apart, arms relaxed alongside the body, and to remain as still as possible throughout the assessment. Center-of-pressure area and velocity were calculated using Matlab R2012a software (MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA).
Time frame: 16 weeks