The goal of this clinical trial was to evaluate whether multiple object tracking and mental imagery training affect tennis performance, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological variables in university students enrolled in an elective tennis course. The main questions it aimed to answer were: Do multiple object tracking and mental imagery training improve tennis performance? Do multiple object tracking and mental imagery training affect executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses? Researchers compared participants who received multiple object tracking training or mental imagery training with a control group that continued their regular tennis classes without additional training. Participants: Completed a pre-test assessment of tennis performance, imagery ability, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological variables. Were assigned to a multiple object tracking, mental imagery, or control group based on their tennis performance scores. Completed multiple object tracking or mental imagery training for five consecutive days over one week in addition to their regular tennis classes. Completed post-test assessments using tennis performance, cognitive, anxiety, and psychophysiological measures.
This study investigated the effects of short-term multiple object tracking and mental imagery training on tennis performance, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses in university students participating in an elective tennis course. The study used a three-group, pre-test/post-test design. Following an initial assessment period, participants were allocated to one of three groups based on their baseline tennis performance: a multiple object tracking group, a mental imagery group, or a control group. All participants participated in their regular tennis course. In addition, participants assigned to the multiple object tracking group received computerized multiple object tracking training, while participants in the mental imagery group completed a structured mental imagery training program. The control group continued their regular tennis course without receiving either additional training program. The study included assessments of tennis performance, imagery ability, cognitive control, working memory, anxiety, heart rate variability, and electrodermal activity. Psychophysiological measures were collected both at rest and during executive function assessment. Pre-test assessments were conducted before the experimental training, and the same outcome assessments were repeated following completion of the training period. The study was designed to examine whether brief cognitive training approaches, specifically multiple object tracking and mental imagery, could produce changes in tennis performance and related cognitive, psychological, and psychophysiological responses.
Study Type
INTERVENTIONAL
Allocation
NON_RANDOMIZED
Purpose
OTHER
Masking
NONE
Enrollment
30
Participants assigned to the Multiple Object Tracking (MOT) group completed a custom-developed, computer-based MOT training program in addition to their regular tennis training. The program was designed to train sustained attention, working memory, and visuospatial tracking. Participants viewed multiple moving spherical objects on a computer screen and were instructed to track a designated subset of target objects while ignoring distractors and identify the target objects at the end of each trial. The researcher could adjust the number of objects, object color, object size, movement speed, and tracking duration. The object movement speed was fixed at 300 pixels per second and the objects were displayed in green. Each session consisted of 140 trials organized into five sets of 28 trials. Each trial included 6 seconds of tracking followed by 6 seconds of rest, with a 2-minute rest period between sets. The active tracking time was approximately 14 minutes and the total session duration wa
Participants assigned to the Mental Imagery (MI) group completed five individual mental imagery training sessions, one session per day for five consecutive days. Each session lasted approximately 30 minutes and was conducted by an experienced clinical psychologist. The training protocol was structured according to the PETTLEP model and incorporated kinesthetic, sensory, and emotional components of motor imagery. Each session consisted of four phases: a 5-minute preparatory phase involving breathing exercises and a body scan; a 5-minute action-observation phase in which participants watched video footage of a professional tennis player performing forehand and backhand strokes, with specific technical aspects highlighted; a 15-minute imagery phase in which participants mentally rehearsed successful and accurate performance of the Dyer Wall Test using both internal and external perspectives; and a 5-minute evaluation phase in which participants rated the vividness and realism of their ima
Halic University
Istanbul, Turkey (Türkiye)
Tennis Performance-Dyer Wall Test
Tennis performance was assessed using the Dyer Wall Test, a wall-based tennis performance test evaluating participants' ability to perform repeated forehand and backhand strokes against a wall. Performance was quantified based on the number of successful returns according to the standardized scoring procedure of the test.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Cognitive Control-Flanker Task
Cognitive control was assessed using a computerized Flanker Task. Performance was evaluated based on reaction time and accuracy in responding to target stimuli while inhibiting responses to distracting stimuli.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Working Memory-Corsi Block Test
Working memory was assessed using the Corsi Block Test, which measures visuospatial short-term and working memory capacity based on participants' ability to reproduce sequences of spatially presented stimuli.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Anxiety-Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2
Competitive state anxiety was assessed using the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. The inventory consists of 14 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale. Total scores range from 14 to 56, with higher scores indicating higher levels of competitive state anxiety.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Heart Rate Variability
Heart rate variability was assessed using the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) derived from beat-to-beat heart rate recordings obtained using a Polar H10 heart rate sensor. Measurements were obtained at rest and during the cognitive assessment tasks.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Electrodermal Activity
Electrodermal activity was assessed using a Shimmer 3 GSR+ device. Skin conductance was recorded at rest and during the cognitive assessment tasks as an indicator of sympathetic nervous system activity.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
Imagery Ability - MIQ-3
Motor imagery ability was assessed using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3, which evaluates participants' ability to internal visual, external visual and kinesthetic imagery of the movement. The questionnaire consists of 12 movement items rated on a 7-point scale, with total scores ranging from 12 to 84. Higher scores indicate greater motor imagery ability.
Time frame: Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks
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